♦Introduction
Burials
are often poorly marked in cemeteries, and many cemeteries suffer from poor or
nonexistent
record
keeping. Cemetery plots are typically treated as property, and conflicting
claims
on a plot
can lead to legal headaches for everyone concerned. Likewise, the disturbance
of an
unmarked
grave by a subsequent burial can be traumatic for all the families involved.
For these
reasons,
it is important for the caretakers of a cemetery to do their best to verify
that a plot is
empty
before someone is buried in it or before the plot is sold or traded.
This
information is relevant only for the identification of graves which can reasonably
be
considered
less than 150 years old. Older graves, including Native American and pioneer
graves,
fall
under the jurisdiction of the Office of the State Archaeologist. If you are
dealing with a grave
you
suspect is more than 150 years old, cease work immediately, cover any exposed
remains,
secure
the area, and call the Burials Program of the Office of the State Archaeologist
(319-384-
0740).
This
guide is intended to help cemetery caretakers and the general public understand
the options
that
exist for locating unmarked graves in Iowa. The most common ways of locating
graves are
discussed,
as well as their advantages and disadvantages. It should be noted that no
process is
foolproof
in finding unmarked graves. There are specific laws related to disturbance of
graves in
Iowa. If
you are unsure if you are allowed to conduct an investigation, please call one
of the
phone
numbers at the end of this list before beginning work.
As
cemetery caretakers well know, what you see on the surface does not always reflect
what is
below.
Grave markers can be at the head, foot, or center of a grave, or can be some
distance from
the
grave. Burials can be oriented in any direction relative to a marker or nearby
burials. The
markings
on the grave stone may face towards or away from the burial. Multiple
individuals may
be buried
under one marker. Many burials lack markers, typically because the original
marker
was made
of wood or because of vandalism. Markers may be situated over empty graves.
Wellmaintained
cemeteries
typically do not have depressions over a grave; if there is a depression, it
may be
far larger or smaller than one would think necessary. Depressions are not
always
signifiers
of graves, since grave diggers can borrow soil from nearby areas to fill in low
spots,
creating
depressions that resemble graves.
In sum,
you cannot assume that surface indications have anything to do with what is
below the
surface.
If records are inadequate, some sort of remote sensing or subsurface testing is
needed to
locate
burials. Described here are the most common techniques.
At the
end of this report is a flowchart that explains some of the decision-making
steps that an
archaeologist
or geophysicist go through to decide what survey technique to use, this chart
may
help you
decide what survey technique is best for your situation.
♦Rod
Probing
Probably
the most common way to search for graves is to probe the soil in the area with
a 6-footlong
rod with
a blunt end and a T-shaped handle. These rods can be purchased commercially or
be made
by the user. The soil is probed in various spots looking for the resistance one
would
expect
from a coffin or vault.
Advantages:
Inexpensive,
easy to use, generally accurate for recent burials in coffins or vaults.
Disadvantages:
Invasive,
so families may object. Cannot find burials that were not in coffins.
Cannot
find wooden coffins that have rotted, which is very common among graves from
the
1800s and
early 1900s. The coffin and remains decay and the coffin void fills in, leaving
no
resistance
or voids to be found by the probe. Very difficult to find small coffins of
infants or
children.
Rocks in the soil often give false readings, and it is very difficult to probe
when the
ground is
hard or frozen.
♦Soil
Coring
A
more-exact method of probing is soil coring, in which a 3/4-inch or 1-inch
diameter hollow
tube is
inserted into the ground above a suspected grave. The core is pulled out, and
the soil
examined
for evidence of disturbance through comparisons with nearby undisturbed areas.
This
work
should be done by a trained archaeologist or soils scientist, since the
differences between a
disturbed
and undisturbed soil can be very subtle, especially if the soil is homogenous
or very
complex.
Advantages:
better
than rod probing, since it can detect burials even if the coffin is severely
decayed.
Cost is usually less than remote sensing. There are numerous qualified
archaeologists in
Iowa who
can help; Iowa archaeology firms are listed at the end of this document.
Disadvantages:
Invasive,
so families may object. Requires an archaeologist or soils scientist, so
cost is
greater than rod probing. Difficult or impossible in rocky soil. Often, soil
difference can be
so subtle
that even a trained archaeologist cannot tell if a grave exists for certain or
not, especially
if the
original soil matrix is very homogenous or if the upper soil layers are
disturbed by nongrave
activity
such as earth moving or burrowing animals. It is very difficult to core when
the
ground is
hard or frozen.
♦Formal
Excavation
The
most-definitive way of determining if a burial exists in a plot is formal
excavation. Formal
excavation
is different than grave digging; typically a grave digger will not notice if
they are
digging
an occupied grave until it is too late and the coffin or burial is damaged or
destroyed.
Human
remains are occasionally found in back dirt or borrow piles at cemeteries,
since the grave
digger
cannot always tell if they have gone through an existing grave. Formal
excavation is
different
than exhumation, in which a fairly-recent burial from a known grave is removed;
many
funeral
parlors or medical examiners can arrange for exhumation. In contrast, formal
excavation
is the
systematic removal of soil in a controlled fashion to locate suspected graves
while causing
minimal
damage to them. Formal excavation is best performed by a trained archaeologist
who has
an
understanding of soils and excavation methods. While there are many ways to
perform formal
excavation,
a common way is to use a wide, toothless backhoe to slowly strip away the soil
in
level
layers a few inches at a time. This allows the archaeologist to check for
evidence in the soil
of a
grave shaft (the filled-in grave hole) above the burial. Once evidence of a
burial is
encountered,
archaeologists can map the burial and leave it in place. If a disinterment
permit has
been
obtained from the Department of Public Health, an archaeologist can carefully
excavate the
remains
for reburial elsewhere, after a consultation with the person who obtained the
permit. If
the
remains and effects are removed, they can be studied to help determine the
identity of the
individual.
Formal excavation can also stop well above the grave if there is evidence of a
shaft.
Advantages:
Almost
fool-proof and, if properly done, will provide a definitive answer. Can be
performed
in any soil type, rocks are not a problem. Excavation can provide information
about
not just
if a burial is located there, but can also provide information needed to
determine the
identity
of the buried person. There are numerous qualified archaeologists in Iowa who
can help;
Iowa
archaeologists are listed at the end of this document.
Disadvantages:
Highly
invasive, so families may object. Expensive; it requires an archaeologist
and
machinery, and possibly laboratory time. There is always a chance that a very
ephemeral
burial
will be missed and destroyed by machinery, although this is unlikely.
♦Ground-Penetrating
Radar (GPR)
With GPR,
a radio or microwave signal is sent into the ground and the reflected signal is
recorded.
The time it takes for the signal to return reflects the depth of penetration,
and the
returning
signal can be stronger or weaker depending on the type of material it is
passing through
and
reflecting off. This data can be used to make an image of the subsurface. A GPR
technician
will walk
an antenna over an area, recording data. This data is processed in a computer
to create a
two- or
three- dimensional image of the subsurface. Under ideal conditions, the grave
shaft and
possibly
the coffin or vault will be visible, but under normal conditions, only the
upper part of the
grave
shaft is visible.
Advantages:
GPR
is non-invasive, so families typically do not object. Under ideal conditions,
it
can
provide a highly-detailed image of the subsurface. GPR can often see through
surface
disturbances.
GPR is probably the best form of remote sensing if the clay content of the soil
is
low.
Services are available in Iowa, for a fee, from the Office of the State
Archaeologist (319-
384-0724).
Other regional practitioners can be found at the web page listed at the end of
this
document,
or by contacting one of the archaeologists listed.
Disadvantages:
GPR's
effectiveness depends on soil conditions; it does not work well in clayrich,
rocky, or
saturated soils. GPR can be expensive.
♦Resistivity
Resistivity
can often be useful in finding graves, it is based on the principle that soils
have
differing
moisture retention properties and therefore will conduct electricity
differently. A small
electric
charge is run between spikes placed in the ground, and the resistance is
measured. When
a soil is
disturbed, as in a burial, different types of soil are brought near the surface
which have
very
slight differences in electrical resistivity. The surveyor will probe at close
intervals over a
large
area collecting data, which is then downloaded into a computer to show areas of
disturbed
soils. In
a cemetery, these often correspond to marked and unmarked graves.
Advantages:
The
spikes only penetrate a few inches into the soil, so it is relatively
non-invasive
and
families typically do not object. Can give some idea if disturbances are deep
or not. Under
ideal
circumstances, resistivity is quite effective.
Disadvantages:
Resistivity
is ineffective if the upper level of soil is disturbed over a large area
(for
example, by previous bulldozing), and it is ineffective under certain
conditions, such as when
the soil
is very wet or very dry. Can be expensive. May be adversely affected by rocky
soil.
Currently,
there are no practitioners in Iowa; for regional practitioners, see the web
page listed at
the end
of this document. Likewise, qualified archaeologists can also help you find a
practitioner,
a list of
Iowa archaeologists is included at the end of this document.
♦Conductivity
Conductivity
is often effective in finding graves. It works by applying a magnetic field to
the
ground
surface. This magnetic pulse causes the soil to generate a secondary magnetic
field, which
is
recorded to make a map. When a soil is disturbed, as in a burial, different
types of soil are
brought
near the surface which have very slight differences in conductivity. The
surveyor will
walk an
instrument over a large area collecting data, which is then downloaded into a
computer to
show
areas of disturbed soils. In a cemetery, these often correspond to marked and
unmarked
graves.
Advantages:
Conductivity
is non-invasive, so families typically do not object. Can cover a large
area in a
fairly short period of time. It can be very effective under the proper
conditions. Suitable
instruments
are often available from local soil scientists, but one must be certain the
operator
understands
how to identify variation associated with graves.
Disadvantages:
Conductivity
is ineffective if the upper level of soil is disturbed over a large area.
It is
ineffective in the presence of ferrous metal (iron, steel, etc.), so the survey
area has to be very
clean and
checked with metal detectors; metal markers, vases, etc., must be removed. It
can be
less
effective if the soil is saturated, very dry, or rocky. It is affected by
nearby power lines.
Currently,
there are no practitioners in Iowa; for regional practitioners, see the web
page listed at
the end
of this document. Likewise, qualified archaeologists can also help you find a
practitioner,
a list of
Iowa archaeologists is included at the end of this document.
♦Magnetometry
A
sometimes effective way to quickly identify graves is with the use of
magnetometers.
Magnetometers
are devices that measure minute changes in the magnetic properties of soil.
When
a soil is
disturbed, as in a burial, different types of soil are brought near the surface
which have
very
slight differences in magnetism. The surveyor will walk a magnetometer over a
large area
collecting
data, which is then downloaded into a computer to produce maps that show areas
of
disturbed
soils. In a cemetery, these often correspond to marked and unmarked graves.
Advantages:
Magentomety
is non-invasive, so families typically do not object. Can cover a large
area in a
fairly short period of time. Can be very effective under the proper conditions.
Disadvantages:
Magentomety
is ineffective if the upper level of soil is disturbed over a large
area.
Soils need to have significant iron oxide content, or it will not work.
Ineffective in the
presence
of ferrous metal (iron, steel, etc.), so the survey area has to be very clean
and checked
with
metal detectors; metal markers, fences, vases, etc., must be removed. Because
of its
limitations,
magentometry is often less effective than conductivity or resistance.
Magentometry
can be
expensive. Currently, there are no practitioners in Iowa; for regional
practitioners, see the
web page
listed at the end of this document. Likewise, qualified archaeologists can also
help you
find a
practitioner, a list of Iowa archaeologists is included at the end of this
document.
♦Dowsing/
Witching
A common
way to search for graves is dowsing, or as it is frequently called in the
Midwest,
"witching,"
or occasionally "divining". The dowser walks over an area with two
copper wires or
rods bent
in an L shape, holding the short ends in each hand and pointing the long ends
forward.
Dowsers
believe the wires will cross over a grave. This practice is ultimately derived
from an old
English
and German folk belief that willow or hazel sticks have an uncontrollable
desire for water
and will
point to underground reservoirs. In America, the willow was replaced with
copper rods
and used
not only to find water, but also graves. One common folk belief is that the two
rods will
converge
if the grave is of a male, and diverge if it is female.
Supposedly
the magnetic properties of disturbed soil or coffin hardware attract the copper
rods.
However,
this is illogical. First, soil and coffin hardware do not attract metal, as
simple
experimentation
will show. Soil is so weakly magnetic that a hyper-sensitive magnetometer is
required
to measure it reliably. Second, even if soil or coffin hardware were strongly
magnetic,
they
would not attract copper wire, which is unaffected by magnetism-experimentation
at home
will show
that you can't move a copper wire or penny with a magnet. Third, even if soil
or coffin
hardware
were magnetic, and non-copper rods were used, the rods would never cross
when
exposed
to a magnetic field; long metal objects always run parallel with strong
magnetic fields.
Remember
the grade-school science project with iron filings on a glass plate over a
magnet? The
filings
line up parallel and curve with the field, they do not cross each other. All
credible
scientific
trials of dowsing have shown that dowsing is no better than random luck or
commonsense
intuition
at finding graves or water (for further information, refer to Robert Todd
Carroll's
reviews
of scientific tests of dowsing in the Skeptic's Dictionary [John Wiley &
Sons, 2003],
www.skepdic.com/dowsing).
Advantages:
There
are no advantages to dowsing.
Disadvantages:
Dowsing
is no better at finding graves than common-sense intuition. Dowsing
could put
yourself or your organization at legal and financial risk and could lead to
public
embarrassment.
When you make determinations about the presence or absence of burials in a plot
you are
making decisions about other people's property which carries legal and
financial
liabilities.
The court of law does not recognize folklore such as dowsing as valid
scientific
practice.
While other technologies and methods described here are not foolproof, they can
at least
be
explained and justified in court because they are based on scientific or
observational
principles.
♦Numbers
to Call for Burials Issues:
Office
of the State Archaeologist Burials Program (burials older than 150 years, can
also answer
general
questions):
Shirley
Schermer- 319-384-0740
Regulated
Industries Unit, Iowa Securities Bureau (oversight of active cemeteries):
Dennis
Britson, Director- 515-281-4441; [email protected]
State
Medical Examiners Office:
Jerri
McLemore, Associate State Medical Examiner-515-281-6726;
[email protected]
Department
of Public Health, Office of Vital Statistics:
Jill
France, Chief, Bureau of Vital Records-515-281-6762; [email protected]
Carol
Barnhill, Office Manager, Vital Records-515-281-7824
Attorney
General's Office:
Mike
Smith, Assistant Attorney General-515-281-5351; [email protected]
♦How
to Contact Geophysicists (Remote Sensing Practitioners) and Archaeologists:
Remote
Sensing. A list of regional practitioners of remote sensing (GPR, magnetometry,
resistivity,
conductivity) can be found at the North American Database of Archaeological
Geophysicists
web site, http://www.cast.uark.edu/nadag/. Since geophysics is an unregulated
profession,
be sure to ask for references and examples of final reports. Geophysicists
affiliated
with
archaeological or engineering firms may be better choices, since archaeology
and
engineering
are regulated professions. Many archaeologists, listed below, can subcontract a
geophysicist
on your behalf.
Archaeologists.
A
full list of qualified archaeologists working in Iowa, including out-of-state
firms, is
maintained by the Iowa State Historical Society on their web site:
http://www.iowahistory.org/preservation/review_compliance/consultant_list.html
All
Archaeology Firms Based in Iowa Listed with ISHS (as of 9/1/05):
Bear
Creek Archaeology (563) 547-4545
Consulting
Archaeological Services (641) 333-4607
Cultural
Heritage Consultants (712) 239-9085
Gradwohl,
David (515) 294-8427
Iowa State
University Archaeology Laboratory (515) 294-7139
Louis
Berger & Associates (319) 373-3043
Office of
the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa (319) 384-0724
Prairie
Archaeological Research Consultants (641) 757-7830
Tallgrass
Historians (319) 354-6722
Wapsi
Valley Archaeology (319) 462-4760
Weitzel,
Timothy (319) 354-5290
First
Version: 9/1/05, William E. Whittaker.
